10 Slide Design Tips for Producing Powerful and Effective Presentations

#1: Keep it simple.

PowerPoint uses slides with a horizontal, or Landscape, orientation. The software was designed as a convenient way to display graphical information that would support the speaker and supplement the presentation. The slides themselves were never meant to be the star of the show. (The star, of course, is your audience.) People came to hear you and be moved or informed (or both) by you and your message. Don't let your message and your ability to tell a story get derailed by slides that are unnecessarily complicated, busy, or full of what Edward Tufte calls "chart junk." Nothing in your slide should be superfluous, ever.

Your slides should have plenty of white space, or negative space. Do not feel compelled to fill empty areas on your slide with your logo or other unnecessary graphics or text boxes that do not contribute to better understanding. The less clutter you have on your slide, the more powerful your visual message will become.

#2: Limit bullet points and text

Your presentation is for the benefit of the audience. But boring an audience with bullet point after bullet point is of little benefit to them. Which brings us to the issue of text. The best slides may have no text at all. This may sound insane given the dependency of text slides today, but the best PowerPoint slides will be virtually meaningless without the narration (that is you). Remember, the slides are meant to support the narration of the speaker, not make the speaker superfluous.

Many people often say something like this: "Sorry I missed your presentation. I hear it was great. Can you just send me your PowerPoint slides?" But if they are good slides, they will be of little use without you. Instead of a copy of your PowerPoint slides, it is far better to prepare a written document that highlights your content from the presentation and expands on that content. Audiences are much better served receiving a detailed, written handout as a takeaway from the presentation, rather than a mere copy of your PowerPoint slides. If you have a detailed handout or publication for the audience to be passed out after your talk, you need not feel compelled to fill your PowerPoint slides with a great deal of text.

We'll talk more about this in the delivery section below, but as long as we are talking about text, please remember to never, ever turn your back on the audience and read text from the slide word for word.

#3: Limit transitions and builds (animation)

Use object builds and slide transitions judiciously. Object builds (also called animations), such as bullet points, should not be animated on every slide. Some animation is a good thing, but stick to the most subtle and professional (similar to what you might see on the evening TV news broadcast). A simple Wipe Left-to-Right is good for a bullet point, but a Move or Fly, for example, is too tedious and slow (and yet, is used in many presentations today.) Listeners will get bored quickly if they are asked to endure slide after slide of animation. For transitions between slides, use no more than two or three types of transition effects and do not place transition effects between all slides.

#4: Use high quality graphics

Use high quality graphics,including photographs. You can take your own high quality photographs with your digital camera, purchase professional stock photography, or use the plethora of high quality images available online. (But be cautious of copyright issues.) Never simply stretch a small, low-resolution photo to make it fit your layout - doing so will degrade the resolution even further.

Avoid using PowerPoint clip art or other cartoonish line art. Again, if it is included in the software, your audience has seen it a million times before. It may have been interesting in 1993, but today the inclusion of such clip art often undermines the professionalism of the presenter. There are exceptions, of course, and not all PowerPoint art is dreadful, but use it carefully and judiciously.

I often use images of people in my slides, as photography of people tends to help the audience connect with the slide on a more emotional level. If the photographic image is secondary in importance, then I decrease the capacity and add a Gaussian Blur or motion filter in Photoshop. If the photographic image is the primary area I want the audience to notice (such as a picture of a product), then the image can be more pronounced and little (or no) text is needed.

#5: Have a visual theme but avoid using PowerPoint templates

You clearly need a consistent visual theme throughout your presentation, but most templates included in PowerPoint have been seen by your audience countless times (and besides, the templates are not all that great to begin with). Your audience expects a unique presentation with new (at least to them) content; otherwise, why would they be attending your talk? No audience will be excited about a cookie cutter presentation, and we must therefore shy away from any supporting visuals, such as the ubiquitous PowerPoint design template, that suggests your presentation is formulaic or prepackaged.

You can make your own background templates, which will be more tailored to your needs. You can then save the file as a Design template and the new template will appear among your standard templates for your future use. You can also purchase professional templates online.

#6: Use appropriate charts

Always be asking yourself, "how much detail do I need?" Presenters are usually guilty of including too much data in their onscreen charts. There are several ways to display data in graphic form; here are a few things to keep in mind:

• Pie charts. Used to show percentages. Limit the slices to 4-6 and contrast the most important slice either with color or by exploding the slice.
• Vertical bar charts. Used to show changes in quantity over time. Best if you limit the bars to 4-8.
• Horizontal bar charts. Used to compare quantities. For example, comparing sales figures among the four regions of the company.
• Line charts. Used to demonstrate trends. For example, a simple line chart can show that sales have gone up every year. The trend is good. An arrow that comes in later can underscore the point: Our future looks good!
• Tables. In general, tables are well suited for side-by-side comparisons of quantitative data. However, tables can lack impact on a visceral level. If you want to show how your contributions are significantly higher than two other parties, for example, it would be best to show that in the form of a bar chart. But if you're trying to downplay the fact that your contributions are lower than others, a table will display that information in a less dramatic or emotional way.

#7: Use color well

Color evokes feelings. Color is emotional. The right color can help persuade and motivate. Studies show that color usage can increase interest and improve learning comprehension and retention.

You do not need to be an expert in color theory, but it's good for business professionals to know at least a bit on the subject. Colors can be divided into two general categories: cool (such as blue and green) and warm (such as orange and red). Cool colors work best for backgrounds, as they appear to recede away from us into the background. Warm colors generally work best for objects in the foreground (such as text) because they appear to be coming at us. It is no surprise, then, that the most ubiquitous PowerPoint slide color scheme includes the blue background with yellow text. You do not need to feel compelled to use this color scheme, although you may choose to use a variation of those colors.

If you will be presenting in a dark room (such as a large hall), a dark background (dark blue, gray, etc.) with white or light text will be fine. But if you plan to keep most of the lights on (which is highly advisable), a white background with black or dark text works much better. In rooms with a good deal of ambient light, a screen image with a dark background and light text tends to washout, but dark text on a light background will maintain it's visual intensity a bit better.

#8: Choose your fonts well

Fonts communicate subtle messages in and of themselves, which is why you should choose fonts deliberately. Use the same font set throughout your entire presentation and use no more than two complementary fonts (eg, Arial and Arial Bold). Make sure you know the difference between a serif font (eg, Times New Roman) and a sans-serif font (eg, Helvetica or Arial).

Serif fonts were designed to be used in documents filled with lots of text. They're said to be easier to read at small point sizes, but for onscreen presentations, the serifs tend to get lost due to the relatively low resolution of projectors. Sans-serif fonts are generally best for PowerPoint presentations, but try to avoid the ubiquitous Helvetica. I often choose to use Gills Sans, as it is somewhere between a serif and a sans-serif font and is professional yet friendly and "conversational." Regardless of what font you choose, make sure the text can be read from the back of the room.

#9: Use video or audio

Use video and audio when appropriate. Using video clips to show concrete examples promotes active cognitive processing, which is the natural way people learn. You can use video clips within PowerPoint without ever leaving the application or turning on a VCR. Using a video clip not only will illustrate your point better, it will also serve as a change of pace, thereby increasing the interest of your audience.

You can use audio clips (such as interviews) as well. But avoid using the cheesy sound effects that are included in PowerPoint (such as the sound of a horn or applause when transitioning slides). The use of superfluous sound effects attached to animations is a sure way to lose credibility with your audience.

#10: Spend time in the slide sorter

According to the Segmentation Principle of multimedia learning theory, people comprehend better when information is presented in small chunks or segments. By getting out of the Slide view and into the Slide Sorter view, you can see how the logical flow of your presentation is progressing. In this view, you may decide to break up one slide into, say, two or three slides so that your presentation has a more natural and logical flow or process. You'll be able to capture more of the gestalt of your entire presentation from the point of view of your audience. You will be able to notice more extraneous pieces of visual data that can be removed to increase visual clarity and improve communication.

NOTE: I intentionally used the bright pink to demonstrate what a wrong color looks like - one that should never be used in a presentation. Remember how you feel when reading this and think of your audience if you use this and other off colors...

Taken from Tech Republic.com. Written by Garr Reynolds.

Presentation Venue and Equipment Preparation

As a seasoned presenter, I have experienced my share of technical or venue-related mishaps on presentation day. Here is one example: I can remember saving a presentation to a CD, only to realize the day of the presentation that the CD had not be burned properly. Lesson learned? Test the CD on another computer before heading to the presentation. Experiences like this have taught me the value of planning ahead. If you are tasked with helping a speaker to prepare for a presentation, some smart contingency planning beforehand can keep things on track for your speaker.

When preparing resources like lecture halls and equipment for a presentation, you have some important factors to consider both before and on presentation day/ Your goal should be to prevent anything that could adversely affect the presenter's performance at the podium. Remember Murphy's Law: If anything can go wrong, it will.

Venue inspection

The most important thing that you can do to prepare for a presentation is to visit the venue ahead of time. Even if you are familiar with the room, it's good to visit it again in case there have been changes to it that might affect a speaker's performance.

• Consider if the room is too hot or too cold. Can the temperature be adjusted? How?
• Are electrical outlets near where the presentation equipment will be, or will you need an extension cord?
• Is there a blank wall or presentation screen to use if it's needed?
• Give some thought to the setup of the chairs. The chairs might be stationary, as in a theater or conference room. If someone will be setting up chairs, however, confirm that they will be arranged so that the audience members are comfortable and can see the speaker.

Equipment test

It is important to fully test all the equipment that the speaker will use for the presentation beforehand.

• If the speaker is using his or her own portable computer, confirm that the battery is fully charged, even if the speaker intends to use the electrical outlet. It is wise to be prepared, just in case.
• If the venue host is providing a projector, learn how to operate it, and confirm that it works correctly with the speaker's computer. In case the projector lamp goes out is there a replacement lamp available, and do you or the host know where it is and how to change it?
• If the speaker will be using a remote device to control his or her presentation slides, make sure that it works and that the speaker has a spare set of batteries.
• If the presentation is in a large room, will the speaker need a microphone and speakers? If so, ensure that they are properly set up, and test them beforehand.
• Obtain the name, room number, and cell and office telephone numbers of the venue's technical support person, and make sure that the speaker has this information on hand.

Presentation insurance

I have given seminars that integrated video with the regular bullet points in my presentation. However, as I was presenting, the video failed to play in a few cases. For me, this was not a disaster, but it might be for your speaker. Therefore, thoroughly test every aspect of the presentation, especially if it incorporates audio, video, or other media.

• If this presentation is very important consider providing the speaker with a technical support person from your department or with a backup computer containing a copy of the presentation. The speaker can quickly swap computers of one does not work.
• Always have the presentation printed so that the speaker can refer to the paper copy in case something goes wrong with the speaker's computer or the projector.
• Of speakers are bringing their own computers to the venue, they might not think to carry a backup of their presentation with them. However, out of respect for Murphy's Law, consider having them place a copy of their presentation in another folder on their hard disk and having them bring a copy on a CD or USB drive.

Other considerations

• Confirm that attendees know where the presentation venue is and that the can locate the building with minimal hassle.
• Confirm that there are no security restrictions that would delay or prevent attendees from entering the building.
• Confirm that the speaker has water available during the presentation.

Preparing a venue for a presentation is all about contingency planning. Understanding the venue and equipment ahead of time and preparing a backup plan can quickly head off any glitches that might otherwise derail your speaker's entire presentation. By having a sound strategy for handling equipment or logistical problems, you can keep your audience focused on your speaker's message.

Taken from Microsoft.com. Written by Ramon Ray.

Preparing a CV

Vitas and resumes both have similar purposes as marketing documents that provide key information about your skills, experiences, education, and personal qualities that show you as the ideal candidate. Where a resume and a curriculum vitae differ is their use, format and length. This article will help with your writing and preparing your vita.

A curriculum vitae - often called a CV or vita - tends to be used more for scientific and teaching positions than a resume. Thus, vitas tend to provide great detail about academic and research experiences. Where resumes tend toward brevity, vitas lean toward completeness.

Unlike resumes, there is no set format to vitas. It is a good idea to discuss what formatting your field requires with a mentor or trusted member of your network. There are also a few books that provide much more depth on the subject - and they can be found at the end of this article.

While vitas do not have the one-page rule, you need to walk the line between providing a good quality of depth to showcase your qualifications and attract potential employer interest and providing too much information thus appearing verbose and turning off potential employer interest.

Ready to begin?

Typical vita categories or headings may include some or all of the following:

• Personal/Contact Information
• Name
• Address
• Phone number(s)
• Email
• Academic Background
• Postgraduate work
• Graduate work/degree(s), mjaor/minor. thesis/dissertation, titles, honors
• Undergraduate degree(s), majors/minors, honors
• Professional Licenses/Certifications
• Academic/Teaching Experience
• Courses taught, courses introduced
• Innovation in teaching
• Teaching evaluations
• Technical and Specialized Skills
• Related/Other Experience
• Other work experience
• Professional/Academic Honors and Awards
• Professional Development
• Conferences, workshops attended, other activities
• Research/Scholarly Activities
• Journal articles
• Conference proceedings
• Books
• Chapters in books
• Magazine articles
• Papers presented/workshops
• Ezine articles
• Work currently under submission
• Work in progress
• Grants
• Service
• Academic
• Professional
• Community
• Academic/Research Interests
• Affiliations/Memberships
• Foreign Language Abilities/Skills
• Consulting
• Volunteer Work
• References

Books about CVs:

• Developing a Professional Vita or Resume by Carl McDaniels and Mary Anne Knobloch
• The Global Resume and CV Guide by Mary Anne Thompson
• How to Prepare Your Curriculm Vitae by Acy L. Jackson and C. Kathleen Geckeis

Taken from Quint Careers.com

Developing a Business Plan

Business plans are like road maps - they provide a picture of where you are, where you want to go and what you need to do to arrive at your destination. Business plans are essential to the effective operation of a business. The exercise of composing a business plan is not necessarily an enjoyable one; it requires considerable thought, a certain amount of research, and good discipline to collect and organize the information it contains. But, just as you would not typically embark on a trip to a totally new location without taking a look at what you need to get there, so too, does a business plan provide you with the guidance necessary to begin the operation of your business.

A typical business plan is written for one or more of the following reasons:

• To obtain financing from a lender or investor
• To outline the business' goals, objective and activities for management
• To educate employees on the goals and objectives of the business

There are several different approaches to organizing a business plan, but most of them contain some version of the following topics:

I. Executive Summary

II. Mission/Vision Statement

III. Goals/Objectives

IV. Situational Analysis (SWOT)

V. Marketing Plan

VI. Financial Plan

VII. Management Plan

VIII. Contingency Plan

IX. Supporting Documents

Executive Summary: The Executive Summary is a one-page overview of the entire plan's contents. It provides the reader a quick look at the goals, plans and purposes of the business. A prospective lender often uses the Executive Summary to determine whether it is worth the time to read the entire plan. So, make sure that your Executive Summary offers a concise picture of your proposed operation.

Mission/Vision Statement: This is a 25-50 word statement that explains the purpose of your business. When writing the statement, think about the "Yellow Pages" listing your enterprise would have, and then explain why your enterprise would fall into that category. This approach helps you focus on writing a concise statement that communicates your message quickly and effectively to those outside of your operation.

Goals and Objectives: Goals and/or objectives identify the specific and quantifiable plans you have for your enterprise. Goals should be SMART: specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely.

Situational Analysis: The Situational Analysis takes a look at both the internal and external factors that can affect the success of your business. The internal factors review the enterprise's strengths and weaknesses; the external factors evaluate the enterprise's opportunities for success and threats to its potential success.

Marketing Plan: The marketing section of the business plan outlines the enterprise's proposed target market, the 4 P's of the strategy (product/service, price, place and promotion), and the steps that the enterprise expects to follow in order to grow its business.

Financial Plan: The financial plan contains all of the financial statements, budgets and financial analyses that show the projected income and expenses for the enterprise. Most lenders and investors pay very close attention to the information contained in both the marketing and financial sections of a business plan. So, special care should be taken to assure that the analysis is thorough and realistic.

Management Plan: The management section describes the owners and managers of the business, their educational backgrounds and experience. Lenders are concerned about business owners who have an understanding of the nuts and bolts of business operations, and more specifically, experience in the type of business that will be operating on borrowed capital.

Contingency Plan: Another term for contingency plan is "ext strategy." While most new businesses shy away from the idea that their enterprise might not be successful, the basic facts of business existence is that four of every five new ventures do fail. Entrepreneurs should consider carefully the conditions under which they will decide to close the operation. In general, an ongoing operating loss, without any hope of recovering the capital, is a good measure to use in deciding to close an enterprise.

Supporting Documents: Supporting documents consist of additional material that will bolster the information contained in the business plan. These can include more detailed financial and cash flow statements, copies of lease agreements for land and/or equipment, information from advisors and/or consultants who have assisted in the operation of the business, and copies of market research data.

Like every other aspect of business operations, business plans are not cast in concrete, but they are the snapshot of what current circumstances are - wand what is considered to be likely in the future. The plan offers a strategic starting point for the business, and it helps a business be proactive as it moves forward.

Taken from NC State University. Written by Annette Dunlap, MBA.

15 Time Management Tips

1. Write things down. A common time management mistake is to try to use your memory to keep track of too many details leading to information overload. Using a to-do list to write things down is a great way to take control of your projects and tasks and keep yourself organized.
2. Prioritize your list. Prioritizing your to-do list helps you focus and spend more time on the things that really matter to you. Rate your tasks into categories using the ABCD prioritization system.
3. Plan your week. Spend some time at the beginning of each week to plan your schedule. Taking the extra time to do this will help increase your productivity and balance your important long-term projects with your more urgent tasks. All you need is 15 to 30 minutes each week. for your planning session.
4. Carry a notebook. You never know when you are going to have a great idea or brilliant insight. Carry a small notebook with you wherever you go so you can capture your thoughts. If you wait too long to write them down you could forget. Another option is to use a digital recorder.
5. Learn to say no. Many people become overloaded with too much work because they overcommit; they say yest when they really should be saying no. Learn to say no to low priority requests and you will free up time to spend on things that are more important.
6. Think before acting. How many times have you said yest to something you later regretted. Before committing to a new task, stop to think about it before you give your answer. This will prevent you from taking on too much work.
7. Continuously improve yourself. Make time in your schedule to learn new things and develop your natural talents and abilities. For example, you could take a class, attend a training program, or read a book. Continuously improving your knowledge and skills increases your marketability, can help boost your career, and is the most reliable path to financial independence.
8. Think about what you are giving up to do your regular activities. It is a good idea to evaluate regularly how you are spending your time. In some cases, the best thing you can do is to stop doing an activity that is no longer serving you so you can spend time doing something more valuable. Consider what you are giving up in order to maintain your current activities.
9. Use a time management system. Using a time management system can help you keep track of everything that you need to do, organize and prioritize your work, and develop sound plans to complete it. An integrated system is like glue that holds all the best time management practices together.
10. Identify bad habits. Make a list of bad habits that are stealing your time, sabotaging your goals, and blocking your success. After you do, work on them one at a time and systematically eliminate them from your life. Remember that the easiest way to eliminate a bad habit is to replace it with another bad habit.
11. Don't do other people's work. Are you in the habit of doing other people's work because of a "hero" mentality? Doing this takes up time that you may not have. Instead, focus on your own projects and goals, learn to delegate effectively, and teach others how to do their own work.
12. Keep a goal journal. Schedule time to set and evaluate goals. Start a journal and write down your progress for each goal. Go through your goal journal each week to make sure you are on the right track.
13. Don't be a perfectionist. Some tasks don't require your best effort. Sending a short email to a colleague, for example, shouldn't take any more than a few minutes. Learn to distinguish between tasks that deserve to be done excellently and tasks that just need to be done.
14. Beware of "filler" tasks. When you have  a to-do list filled with important tasks, be careful not to get distracted by "filler" tasks. Things such as organizing your bookcase or filing papers can wait until you tackle the items that have the highest priority.
15. Avoid "efficiency traps." Being efficient doesn't necessarily mean that you are being productive. Avoid taking on tasks that you can do with efficiency that don't need to be done at all. Just because you are busy and getting things done doesn't mean you are actually accomplishing anything significant.

Taken from Time Thoughts.com.

Reactive Decision Making

People tend to make decisions reactively when confronted with emergency situations or when a disaster unfolds. In these circumstances, the best decisions tend to be those that have been thought through and rehearsed ahead of time, a good example being use of a pre-prepared evacuation plan when the office catches fire. The normal decision-making process generally involves:

1. Defining the problem.
2. Collecting necessary information.
3. Developing options.
4. Devising a plan.
5. Executing.
6. Following up.

However reactive decision-making is, well, reactive. Because of this, there's not usually time to execute this full decision-making process, meaning that it's all-too-easy to make a bad decision when under pressure.

What this means is that actions to be taken in an emergency should be carefully planned for beforehand so that you can act appropriately when an event occurs. This may include, for example, devising contingency plans for what to do when a supplier ships poor quality goods when you are on a very tight deadline, or planning how to get essential systems back online if your office premises are burgled and computers are stolen.

Planning for exceptional reactive decision making

When doing this, the first step is to look at the risks you face and determine if they have a high or low probability of occurring. You can use a Risk Assessment Matrix to do this. To create a risk assessment matrix, draw a graph, matrix or simple table with a vertical axis marked "Consequences" and a horizontal axis marked as "Probability." Use a simple scale of 0 (very small) to 5 (very large). "Consequences" are credible potential worst-case scenarios that may develop. "Probabilities" are your best assessments of the likelihoods that individual consequences will occur.

Now brainstorm the possible consequences to which you're exposed, and then assess the risk of each consequence occurring. Where possible, base these assessments of risk on real-world evidence and experience. Then plot these on the RAM. You'll find that as you do this, your contingency planning priorities quickly becomes clear.

Keep in mind that using the RAM is not an exact science. What it is is a useful visual tool for looking at the relative importance of each risk. This will allow for better planning and optimal outcomes when reactive decision-making must be relied on.

But what to do when forced to make a reactive decision without having a plan in place? When this is the case, there is not time to complete a thorough RAM. Such a decision must be quickly made using appropriate reasoning, based on the best possible outcome.

Making unexpected decisions under pressure

For instance, a team leader unexpectedly walks off the job in the middle of the company's largest project, jeopardizing the project's outcome and negatively impacting other areas in which he or she is involved. Obviously, work must go on. This is when it is important to make a quick reactive decision based on perceived risks and possible consequences.

In such a case, it may be appropriate to gather the team and reassign certain tasks so that everyone involved is taking up some of the responsibility left by the departing team leader. Or, perhaps appointing a new team leader is the best reactive decision to make. Whatever the decision, make sure to make it based on what's best for all involved, while remaining mindful of the larger picture., ie, possible risks and consequences. Here it's often not possible to achieve a perfect outcome - what you're trying to do is control damage as best you can.

The Marketing Mix and 4 P's

What is marketing? The definition that many marketers learn as they start out in the industry is:

Putting the right product in the right place, at the right price, at the right time.

It's simple! You just need to create a product that a particular group of people want, put it on sale some place that those same people visit regularly, and price it at a level which matches the values they feel they get out of it; and do it all that at a time they want to buy. Then you've got it made!

There's a lot of truth in this idea. However, a lot of hard work needs to go into finding out what customers want, and identifying where they do their shopping. Then you need to figure out how to produce the item at a price that represents value to them, and get it all to come together at the critical time.

But if you get just one element wrong, it can spell disaster. You could be left promoting a car with amwzing fuel-economy in a country where fuel is very cheap; or publishing a textbook after the start of the new school year, or selling an item at a price that's too high - or too low - to attract people you're targeting.

The marketing mix is a good place to start when you are thinking through your plans for a product or service, and it helps you avoid these kinds of mistakes.

Understanding the tool

The marketing mix and the 4 P's of marketing are often used as synonyms for each other. In fact, they are not necessarily the same thing.

"Marketing mix" is a general phrase used to describe the different kinds of choices organizations have to make in the whole process of brining a product or service to market. The 4 P's is one way - probably the best-known way - of defining the marketing mix, and was first expressed in 1960 by EJ McCarthy.

The 4 P's are:

• Product (or Service)
• Place
• Price
• Promotion

A good way to understand the 4 P's is by the questions that you need to ask to define your marketing mix. Here are some questions that will help you understand and define each of the four elements:

Product/Service

• What does the customer want from the product/service? What needs does it satisfy?
• What features does it have to meet these needs? Are there any features you've missed out? Are you including costly features that the customer won't actually use?
• How and where will the customer use it?
• What does it look like? How will the customers experience it?
• What size(s), color(s), and so on, should it be?
• How is it branded?
• How is it differentiated versus your competitors?
• What is the most it can cost to provide, and still be sold sufficiently profitably?

Place

• Where do buyers look for your product or service?
• If they look in a store, what kind? A specialist boutique or in a supermarket or both? Or online? Or direct, via a catalog?
• How can you access the right distribution channels?
• Do you need to use a sales force? Or attend trade fairs? Or make online submissions? Or send samples to catalog companies?
• What do your competitors do, and how can you learn from that and/or differentiate?

Price

• What is the value of the product or service to the buyer?
• Are there established price points for products or services in this area?
• Is the customer price sensitive? Will a small decrease in price gain you extra market share? Or will a small increase be indiscernible, and so gain you extra profit margin?
• What discounts should be offered to trade customers, or to other specific segments of your market?
• How will your price compare with your competitors?

Promotion

• Where and when can you get across your marketing messages to your target market?
• Will you reach your audience by advertising in the press, or on TV, or radio, or on billboards? By using direct marketing mailshot? Through PR? On the Internet?
• When is the best time to promote? Is there seasonality in the market? Are there any wider environmental issues that suggest or dictate the timing of your market launch,, or the timing of subsequent promotions?
• How do your competitors do their promotions? And how does that influence your choice of promotional activity?

The 4 P's model is just one of many marketing mix lists that have been developed over the years. And, whilst the questions we have listed above are key, they are just a subset of the detailed probing that may be required  to optimize your marketing mix.

Amongst the other marketing mix models have been developed over the years is Boom and Bitner's 7 P's, sometimes called the extended marketing mix, which include the first 4 P's, plus people, processes and physical layout decisions.

Another marketing mix approach is Lauterborn's 4 C's, which presents the elements of the marketing mix from the buyer's, rather than the seller's, perspective. It is made up of Customer needs and wants (the equivalent of product), Cost (price), Convenience (place), and Communication (promotion). In this article, we focus on the 4 P's model as it is the most well-recognized, and contains the core elements of a good marketing mix.

Taken from Mind Tools.com